why did operation rolling thunder fail why did operation rolling thunder fail

The USSR upgraded the SA-2 radar several times to improve ECM resistance. info@gurukoolhub.com +1-408-834-0167; why did operation rolling thunder fail. The USAF's 2nd Air Division (replaced by the Seventh Air Force on 1 April 1966) was ostensibly responsible for aerial operations over North and South Vietnam. Schlight, The meetings were usually attended by the president, McNamara, Secretary of State. Analytical cookies are used to understand how visitors interact with the website. Failure of Operation Rolling Thunder The bombing campaign failed because the bombs often fell into empty jungle, missing their targets. During Operation Rolling Thunder, the first major air campaign of the Vietnam War, the Navy and Air Force aimed to limit North Vietnam's ability to support the Viet Cong and other Communist groups in Southeast Asia. why did operation rolling thunder fail. Naval aircraft, which had shorter ranges (and carried lighter bomb loads) than their air force counterparts, approached their targets from seaward with the majority of their strikes flown against coastal targets. If the aircraft fired one, the Shrike could be neutralized with the side-pointing technique without sacrificing any SA-2s. However, what most people don't know or simply fail to recognize is that despite the massive scale of Rolling . [d] This did not, however, satisfy the military chiefs, who demanded a wider and more aggressive campaign.[18]. This dilemma was further compounded by an Air Force policy which dictated universal pilot training while proscribing involuntary second combat tours, which combined, had the effect of rotating personnel to different aircraft. [78], The nature of the gradual escalation had given Hanoi time to adapt to the situation. The cookie is set by the GDPR Cookie Consent plugin and is used to store whether or not user has consented to the use of cookies. After shooting down a few American planes and forcing some of the F-105s to drop their bombs prematurely, the MiGs did not wait for retaliation, but disengaged rapidly. [57] Air Force Chief of Staff John P. McConnell also opposed sending the bombers into the air defense environment in the north and limited B-52 strikes to Route Package One. On 2 January 1967, the Americans sprang a surprise on the MiGs when they launched Operation Bolo. It was estimated that the damage done to North Vietnam by the bombing raids was $300 million. An experienced F-4 pilot could end up flying FAC missions in an, The 1972 figure might also reflect the redeployment of anti-aircraft battalions after the end of. Three months after being elected president, Lyndon B. Johnson launched Operation Rolling Thunder. [95][v] The limited goals entailed in American foreign policy and the military's goal of total victory were simply not reconcilable. [17], In August 1964, as a result of the Gulf of Tonkin Incident, in which U.S. naval vessels were attacked by North Vietnamese patrol boats, President Johnson ordered retaliatory air strikes (Operation Pierce Arrow) launched against the north. U.S claimed missile success rate fell from one kill in 30 launches to less than one kill in 50. what percent of texas is christian; Blog Details Title ; By | June 29, 2022. Johnson refused to take such a provocative action, however, and such an operation was not implemented until 1972. Why Operation Rolling Thunder Failed. [10] Between 1957 and 1963, the U.S. found itself committed, through its acceptance of the policy of containment and belief in the domino theory, to defending South Vietnam from what it saw as expansive communist aggression. [61], According to American writer Stephen Budiansky, "captured documents showed that the North Vietnamese had at least thirty to forty-five minutes' warning of 80 to 90 per cent of Rolling Thunder missions." [49], Rolling Thunder exposed many problems within the American military services committed to it and tended to exacerbate others. The daily target selection meetings were soon replaced by weekly sessions and finally by the creation of bi-weekly "force packages. [43], On 5 April 1965, U.S. reconnaissance discovered that the North Vietnamese were constructing positions for what could only be surface-to-air missile (SAM) batteries. General John W. Vogt Jr., commander of the Seventh Air Force, reported to the USAF Chief of Staff that they were losing the air war. TIL during 'Operation Rolling Thunder', a massive bombing campaign on North Vietnam, which killed 180,000 civilians, the US dropped more bombs in 3 years than it used during the entire Pacific Theater of World War II. If the insurgency continued "with DRV support, strikes against the DRV would be extended with intensified efforts against targets north of the 19th parallel. OTHER WORDS FOR dearth 1 shortage, want, paucity, insufficiency. Operation Rolling Thunder. [119], Rolling Thunder had begun as a campaign of psychological and strategic persuasion, but it changed very quickly to interdiction, a tactical mission. [42] Until the third week of April, Rolling Thunder had enjoyed at least equal status with air missions conducted in the south. [108], Hanoi, which had continuously stipulated that it would not conduct negotiations while the bombing continued, finally agreed to meet with the Americans for preliminary talks in Paris. By 1967, North Vietnam had formed an estimated 25 SAM battalions (with six missile launchers each) which rotated among approximately 150 sites. On the morning of 27 July, 48 F-105s were to participate in the strike, designated Operation Spring High. The Operation Flaming Dart raids were later followed by Operation Rolling Thunder, which began a 44-month campaign on 2 March 1965.: 59 Other aerial campaigns were also waged during the war. U.S aircraft flew at an altitude of 45 kilometers, and the Vietnamese anti-aircraft guns were unable to reach them. The financial cost of Operation Rolling Thunder was huge. Of these, 107 (56 percent) were forced to jettison their bombs. [116] At the end of 1967, the CIA estimated 27,900 military and 48,000 civilians killed and wounded. [127], From April 1965 to November 1968, in 268 air battles conducted over North Vietnam, VPAF claimed to have shot down 244 US or RVNAF's aircraft, and they lost 85 MiGs. A major effort was made to isolate the urban areas by downing bridges and attacking LOCs. This also helped account for the lower number of aircraft and pilot losses suffered by the navy. During 1965, 97,000 North Vietnamese civilians volunteered to work full-time in repairing the damage inflicted by U.S. bombs. The newer missile-armed F-4 Phantom would become the Americans' primary dogfighting platform. What was Operation Rolling Thunder did it work? - Failure of Search and Destroy (My Lai Massacre) - Role of the media. [3] Figures on U.S. Navy and Marine Corps casualties were harder to come by. The Air Force doubled the number of sorties sent into Route Package One to more than 6,000 per month with the campaign concentrated on interdiction "choke points", road closing, and truck hunting. The Vietcong guerrillas knew the jungle and. The operation became the most intense air/ground battle waged during the Cold War period; it was the most difficult such campaign fought by the United States since the aerial bombardment of Germany during World War II. [117] The US government has estimated that 30,000 civilians were killed in total as a result of the operation. - Lack of support back home. It possessed the only all-weather bomber in the U.S. inventory in the new A-6 Intruder and was also responsible for the development of the F-4 Phantom fighter-bomber, which became ubiquitous during the Vietnam War. Operation Rolling Thunder was an 8-week campaign, that lasted over 3 years. Aftermath With imports into North Vietnam down 35-50% and with PAVN forces stalled, Hanoi became willing to resume talks and make concessions. Contrary to opinion, the U.S. public still supported the American effort in South Vietnam. [77], North Vietnam's deployment of SAMs forced American pilots to make hard choices: either approach targets at higher altitudes (to avoid anti-aircraft fire) and become prey to SAMs, or fly lower to avoid the missiles and become the target of anti-aircraft batteries. [130] It was not until 1975, however, that the Air Force introduced Exercise Red Flag to match the performance of the Navy's TOPGUN.[131]. People who have the same ideals and purposes often come together to share their resources and ideas. [85], VPAF flew their interceptors with superb guidance from ground controllers, who positioned the MiGs in perfect ambush battle stations. [106] Once again, the military commanders were faced a familiar dilemma: having opposed the bombing cutback, they then decided that the new policy had a lot of merit, especially when considering the alternative of no bombing at all. But the U.S. accounting of SE Asia losses shows no Crusaders lost that date. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. [a], U.S. policy was for a time dictated by its perception of improvement in the Saigon government. [71], The northern economy was decentralized for its protection, and large factories, located in the heavily populated Red River Delta region, were broken up and scattered into caves and small villages throughout the countryside. SAM crews could briefly illuminate a hostile aircraft to see if the target was equipped with a Shrike. achieve them. The North's airfields, which, according to any rational targeting policy, should have been hit first in the campaign, were also off-limits. It reported to the Seventh on operational matters and to the Thirteenth Air Force (whose headquarters was in the Philippines) for logistical and administrative concerns. Click the card to flip . [76], Rolling Thunder reached the last stage of its operational evolution during 1967 and 1968. "[62], Before Rolling Thunder even began the North Vietnamese leadership knew what was coming. Motivated by politics alone, the United States interfered with a smaller states' freedom from . "[100], It had now become clear to President Johnson that McNamara had become a liability to the administration. The operation continued, with occasional suspensions, until President Johnson, under increasing domestic political pressure, halted it on October 31, 1968. The Tet Offensive concluded as a military disaster for North Vietnam and the VC, but it also adversely affected U.S. public opinion, which in turn affected the will of Washington. In total, the USAF lost eleven aircraft to air and ground forces, while the VPAF lost three of their fighters. This led to the cancellation of Operation Rolling Thunder in 1968. Operation Rolling Thunder was the coordinated military air campaign during the Vietnam War from March of 1965 to October 1968. [34] For the first time in the campaign, targets were to be chosen for their military, rather than their psychological, significance. This was the first time that U.S aircraft had been attacked by SAMs. Failure of Operation Rolling Thunder The bombing campaign failed because the bombs often fell into empty jungle, missing their targets. There were 2 main reasons the bombing tactics of Operation Rolling Thunder failed: Supplies continued to get through to the Vietcong via the extensive tunnel system and the Ho Chi Minh Trail . These anti-aircraft guns were lethal at close range, the Vietnamese shot down six aircraft, and more than half of the remaining U.S aircraft suffered damage from groundfire. They also introduced a passive guidance mode, whereby the tracking radar could lock on the jamming signal itself and guide missiles directly towards the jamming source. The Operation was borne out of President Johnson 's desire to stop North Vietnamese resistance, cut off their supplies and bring them to the negotiation table. why did operation rolling thunder fail. Considered a failure, because it did not discourage the North from continuing it's war against the South . The most complete treatment of the search for peace is Allen E. Goodman. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. "[47], By 24 December 1965, 180 U.S. aircraft had been lost during the campaign (85 Air Force, 94 Navy and one Marine Corps). [128], It was not until Operation Linebacker in 1972 that the problem became acute enough for the Air Force to finally take note. Naval aviators had flown 28,168 sorties and dropped 11,144 tons. One of them was to point the radar to the side and then turn it off briefly. [118], Due to combat and operational circumstances, 506 USAF, 397 Navy and 19 Marine Corps aircraft were lost over or near North Vietnam. Operation Rolling Thunder's strategic objectives were never met. The Vietnam War was destined to fail from the very beginning. [55] The new campaign exposed years of neglect in conventional tactics, while aircraft capabilities and armament were ill-suited to the task at hand. March 11th: Operation Market Time. [110], Between March 1965 and November 1968, USAF aircraft had flown 153,784 attack sorties against North Vietnam, while the Navy and Marine Corps had added another 152,399. The process of the campaign became an end unto itself, with sortie generation as the standard by which progress was measured. [37] Eventually, armed reconnaissance missions constituted 75 percent of the total bombing effort, in part because the system through which fixed targets were requested, selected, and authorized was so complicated and unwieldy. They began modifying their aircraft with built-in M61 Vulcans for close-in use, adopted the Sidewinder and began upgrading them to improve their performance, and introduced new ground and air-based radars to provide an overall watch over the battlefield. It matters not whether the perceptions were accurate or inaccurate. "[64] All except those deemed "truly indispensable to the life of the capital" were evacuated to the countryside. After attacking their targets (usually by dive-bombing) the strike forces would either fly directly back to Thailand or exit over the relatively safe waters of the Gulf of Tonkin. The answer seemed to lie in the application of air power. "[53][k] To complicate matters, the U.S. ambassadors to Thailand (Graham Martin) and Laos (William H. Sullivan) exerted undue influence over operational and command arrangements. The brutal tactics used by US troops often drove more Vietnamese civilians to support the Vietcong. A further refinement of the plan was developed by William and McGeorge Bundy on 29 November 1964, with a more moderate target list, which the Joint Chiefs opposed. From May to December 1966, the U.S lost 47 aircraft in air battles, destroying only 12 enemy fighters. For various reasonsincluding fear of provoking a confrontation with North Vietnam's Russian and Chinese alliesall sorts of restrictions and constraints were imposed. After input from the State Department and the CIA, the requests then proceeded to the White House, where the president and his "Tuesday Cabinet" made decisions on the strike requests on a weekly basis. [91], Despite the best interdiction efforts of Rolling Thunder, however, the VC and PAVN launched their largest offensive thus far in the war on 30 January 1968, striking throughout South Vietnam during the lunar new year holiday. During the 44-month time frame, 454 naval aviators were killed, captured, or missing during combined operations over North Vietnam and Laos. [90] As a result, operations against the last of North Vietnam's airfields, previously off-limits to attack, were authorized. [citation needed] Tet merely served notice to the administration that the public wanted either victory or an end to the open-ended commitment of American resources and manpower. This policy was ultimately unsuccessful. Rusk proposed limiting the campaign to the panhandle of North Vietnam without preconditions and awaiting Hanoi's reaction. Failure of Operation Rolling Thunder: The bombing campaign failed because the bombs often fell into empty jungle, missing their Vietcong targets. This "guerrilla warfare in the air" proved very successful. Additionally, "nearly all radio communications of the U.S. air operations used unencrypted tactical voice. McNamara, pps. Operation Rolling Thunder, a 1965 bombing on North Vietnam, was the inspiration for the group's name. A sophisticated cat and mouse game then ensued between North Vietnamese radar operators and the Wild Weasel pilots. See antonyms for dearth on Thesaurus.com QUIZ Question false Drew 1986; Van Staaveren, p. 46; Tilford, p. 93. However, after an SA-2 shot down some U.S aircraft, the U.S bombers began to descend below three kilometers. Its aircraft had been designed and its pilots trained for strategic operations against the Soviet Union for nuclear, not conventional war. The Chinese reaction would be instant and total. By 1970 the Navy's kill ratio had climbed to 13:1. What happens to atoms during chemical reaction? [22], These actions led to the plans for a sustained air campaign being reconsidered. [65], Since gaining air superiority over U.S. forces was out of the question, the northern leadership decided to implement a policy of air deniability. By war's end, the American bombing campaigns during the Vietnam War amounted to the heaviest aerial bombardment in history, totaling 7,662,000 tons of . [32], The majority of strikes during Rolling Thunder were launched from four air bases, in Thailand: Korat, Takhli, Udorn, and Ubon. Like most things in life; it was neither a failure nor a success; it was a bit of both. [79], The Wild Weasels also carried electronic countermeasures (ECM) equipment to protect themselves. The intention was to pressure Communist leaders to end the. "[13][c], Questions then arose among the U.S. administration and military leadership as to the best method by which Hanoi (the perceived locus of the insurgency) could be dissuaded from its course of action. They were motivated by slogans like "Each kilogram of goodsis a bullet shot into the head of the American pirates. June 17, 2022 . According to VanDeMark, Rolling Thunder failed to achieve any such objective. The North Vietnamese guerrillas knew the jungle and made use. MiG-21 intercepts of F-105 strike groups were effective in downing US aircraft or forcing them to jettison their bomb loads. scarcity and dearness of food; famine. [82], The nature of the targets and the risks involved in striking (and re-striking) them began to take a toll. Fighters had only to defend a 90-degree arc in front of the strike force, SAM exposure was more limited, and coastal targets made the shorter distances of search and rescue operations more conducive to success. [77], After two days, President Johnson gave the order to attack all known SA-2 positions, which had also been discovered outside the 30-mile exclusion zone. In the same period, only 31 MiGs killed were claimed by U.S. aircraft and things worsened in the summer with 13 U.S. aircraft lost to MiGs and only 11 MiGs shot down were claimed. [88] During the war, 13 VPAF's flying aces attained their status while flying the MiG-21 (compared to three in the MiG-17). At first, the strikes appeared highly successful, destroying tank farms near Hanoi and Haiphong and leading the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to estimate that 70 percent of North Vietnam's oil facilities had been destroyed for the loss of 43 aircraft. - 3755474 From 1965 to 1968, about 643,000 tons of bombs were dropped on North Vietnam, and a total of nearly 900 U.S. aircraft were lost during Operation Rolling Thunder. American air power doctrine was based on the concept of strategic bombardment, a concept based on two fundamental assumptions. [70][r] In 1966, the MiG-17 were joined by more modern Soviet-built Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21s, which could fight on a more equal footing with the American aircraft. Is oxidation physical or chemical weathering? The four objectives of the operation (which evolved . Also included in the missions were KC-135 aerial tankers and Search and Rescue (SAR) helicopters, which were, in turn, protected by propeller-driven A-1 escorts. When the gods of aerial firepower hear the United States Armed Forces cries of . 3 Why was Operation Rolling Thunder was a failure? Two fundamental factors seem particularly important in an analysis of why Rolling Thunder failed to achieve its objectives. The civilians, moreover, did not understand air power well enough to know that their policies might be crippling it; second, the American military leadership failed to initially propose and develop, or later to adapt, an appropriate strategy for the war. Three days later, a one-time strike was authorized against the two offending missile sites. [68], Backing up the guns were the fighter aircraft of the VPAF, which originally consisted of only 53 MiG-17 fighter aircraft. In its public defense of its policies, the State Department argued that South Vietnam was "fighting for its life against a brutal campaign of terror and armed attack inspired, directed, supplied, and controlled by the communist regime in Hanoi. Bridges, rail yards, docks, barracks and supply dumps were all targeted, and selected based on a criterion system considering: (a) reducing North Vietnamese support of communist operations in Laos and South Vietnam, (b) limiting North Vietnamese capabilities to take direct action against Laos and South Vietnam, and finally (c) impairing North Vietnams capacity to continue as an industrially viable state.[19]. The MiGs made fast and devastating attacks against US formations from several directions (usually the MiG-17s performed head-on attacks and the MiG-21s attacked from the rear). 922 aircraft lost[3][4], North Vietnam: 20,000 soldiers and 30,000182,000 civilians killed[5][6][7]120 aircraft destroyed[5]North Korea: 14 pilots killed[8]. Forty years ago today, the U.S. launched Operation Eagle Claw to rescue 52 U.S. Embassy staff personnel held hostage in Iran. The result was seven MiG-21s shot down within 12 minutes for no U.S. What are the physical state of oxygen at room temperature? The North Vietnamese guerrillas knew the jungle and. From March 1965 through October 1968, naval aviators flew over 140,000 sorties from Yankee Station. [39], As part of a large attack on the Thanh Ha Bridge on 3 April, the VPAF first appeared as two flights of four Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17s launched from Noi Bai airbase and shot down an F-8 Crusader,[i] while losing just one of their own aircraft, written off when it landed on a river bed after running short of fuel. They were fast enough for hit and run ambush operations and they were also maneuverable enough to shock the American fighter community by shooting down more advanced F-8 Crusaders and F-105 Thunderchiefs, which had to quickly develop new tactics. "By denying Momyer, they were really denying Westmoreland and keeping air operations against the DRV under their control. We also use third-party cookies that help us analyze and understand how you use this website. The cyclical monsoon patterns meant that the weather was deplorable for flight operations eight months of the year (from late September to early May) when rain and fog tended to conceal targets. Operation Rolling Thunder failed on both accounts. But in encounters with lighter VPAF's MiG-21, the F-4 began to suffer defeats. [104], Disappointed by perceived political defeats at home and hoping that Hanoi would enter into negotiations, President Johnson announced on 31 March 1968, that all bombing north of the 19th parallel would cease. It lasted much longer than expected and resulted not only in the loss of military significance for the United States but also damaged the reputation of its leaders as the protectors of democratic values and freedoms in general. [14] They reasoned that a small nation like North Vietnam, with a tiny industrial base that was just emerging after the First Indochina War, would be reluctant to risk its new-found economic viability to support the insurgency in the south. Operation Rolling Thunder, one of the most famous engagements in the history of the "Americanized" period of the Vietnam War, came to an end after negotiations gave way to a mutual agreement to conclude it. [11] Events in South Vietnam, however, outpaced this plan. [citation needed], Later in the year, the U.S. launched its most intense and sustained attempt to force North Vietnam into peace negotiations. As a result, President Johnson declared that a complete bombing halt over North Vietnam would go into effect on 1 November 1968, just prior to the U.S. presidential election. The North Vietnamese and their allies had proven a formidable match in the air for the U.S. and South Vietnamese. It should be self-evident that in order to moun Continue Reading The SA-2 had greater range than the Shrike, but if the Shrike was launched and the radar operator stayed on the air, the American missile would home in on the signal and destroy the radar source. [59][p] Conversely, the Navy tended to maintain its aircrews within the same community for the duration of their careers, thereby retaining their expertise, but also incurring greater losses among experienced crews undergoing multiple combat tours. the defeat. We use cookies on our website to give you the most relevant experience by remembering your preferences and repeat visits. Sharing is Caring Show us some Love [41] The mission of the ground forces was expanded to combat operations, and the aerial campaign became a secondary operation, overwhelmed by troop deployments and the escalation of ground operations in South Vietnam. Audio recordings and transcripts with comments of actual Wild Weasel combat missions over Vietnam. On 13 February a new plan was approved and given the name Rolling Thunder, merging targets and priorities from the lists produced by the Bundys and the JCS. The U.S strike had destroyed two worthless targets for the loss of six aircraft and five pilots. [n], Once air-to-air combat began over North Vietnam, the Air Force was again found lacking. In Clausewitzian terms, Rolling Thunder failed because it was not an effective political instrumentit did not achieve its stated goal of compelling the North Vietnamese to do our will. In March 1964 the Commander in Chief Pacific (CINCPAC) began developing plans for a sustained eight-week air campaign designed to escalate in three stages. Rolling Thunder lasted until the end of October. President Johnson was inclined to take the advice of his divided civilian advisors, rather than his military advisors. Failure of Operation Rolling Thunder The bombing campaign failed because the bombs often fell into empty jungle, missing their targets. But the Vietnamese knew that U.S. aircraft were coming and set up many 23mm and 37mm anti-aircraft guns at the site. [54][m], Another problem exposed by Rolling Thunder was the unpreparedness of the Air Force for the operations it was undertaking. cattaraugus county pistol permit office phone number; louisiana state penitentiary warden; rochelle park police blotter; phillips smith and dunn houses for sale in braunton In fact, Attrition strategy in general and Zippo missions, together with the " Operation Rolling Thunder " bombing campaigns, in particular failed to achieve its desirable goals that could lead to a turning point in the war. why did operation rolling thunder fail. After the combat launches, the anti-aircraft missile division was to leave the region immediately, otherwise it was destroyed by a bomb-assault strike. The Air Force simply could not effectively interdict North Vietnams supply routes to the South. Although the first aircrews arriving in-theater were highly experienced, the rapidly growing tempo and ever-expanding length of the operation demanded more personnel. This could distract enemy pilots, or even occasionally cause them to drop ordnance prematurely to lighten their aircraft enough to dodge the nonexistent missile. Until December 1965, according to American data, eight SA-2s systems were destroyed. The POL attacks were halted on 4 September, after U.S. intelligence admitted that there was "no evidence yet of any shortages of POL in North Vietnam. See synonyms for dearth on Thesaurus.com OPPOSITES FOR dearth 1 abundance, plenty, sufficiency; surplus. [t] In the end, this erratic course satisfied no one and did little to alter the course of the war. According to U.S. Air Force historian Earl Tilford: Targeting bore little resemblance to reality in that the sequence of attacks was uncoordinated and the targets were approved randomly even illogically. Why did operation rolling thunder fail to lead to a quick victory? [26][f], The first mission of the new operation was launched on 2 March against an ammunition storage area near Xom Bang. U.S. Department of State, p. 60. The great conundrum had then become how to defeat North Vietnam without defeating North Vietnam. 1 Why is Operation Rolling Thunder a failure? An earlier example wold be the Blitz of London and other British cities during World War 2. The RVNAF had contributed 682 missions with unknown ordnance tonnages. "[75], Between 1964 and early 1965, the Vietnamese had nothing to threaten American pilots in the air. [44] Then, on 24 July, an F-4 was shot down by a SA-2 Guideline missile. [56] The Air Force continuously opposed adapting to the war in Southeast Asia, since its leadership believed that it was an aberration that would be quickly resolved. These cookies will be stored in your browser only with your consent. Failure of Operation Rolling Thunder The bombing campaign failed because the bombs often fell into empty jungle, missing their targets. [3][4] During the operation, of the 745 crewmen shot down, the USAF recorded 145 rescued, 255 killed, 222 captured (23 of whom died in captivity) and 123 missing. [120] Its ultimate failure had two sources, both of which lay with the civilian and military policy-makers in Washington: first, neither group could ever conceive that the North Vietnamese would endure under the punishment that they would unleash upon it.